Vol. 79 No. 3 (2024)
Editorials

Nature and Forest Management

PDF-ENG-ITA
  • Susanna Nocentini
DOI: https://doi.org/10.36253/ifm-1137

Published 2024-09-05

Keywords

  • close to nature silviculture,
  • old-growth forests,
  • disturbance ecology,
  • forest ethic,
  • systemic silviculture

How to Cite

Nocentini, S. (2024). Nature and Forest Management. L’Italia Forestale E Montana, 79(3), eng p. 99–115; ita p. 117. https://doi.org/10.36253/ifm-1137

Copyright (c) 2024 Susanna Nocentini

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

Abstract

In the last years there has been a growing attention towards the need for a more “natural” approach in forest management. The call for a close to nature forest management is certainly not new. The aim of this review is to analyze how the concept of “nature” has evolved in forest management and discuss if “naturalness” is still a viable reference for managing forests ecosystems considering the multiple values which are today attributed to forests.
Over a century ago foresters turned to “virgin forests” as inspiration for modeling silviculture. This approach refers to the classic paradigm in ecology, which for a long time was the “balance of nature paradigm”. More recently “disturbance ecology” has recognized the role of natural disturbances in determining the structure, biodiversity and functioning of forest ecosystems, and has inspired forest management approaches based on the natural disturbance regime.
The search for a “natural” reference model underlies the belief that through management it is possible to forecast with sufficient accuracy the reaction of the ecosystem and thus bring it to a composition, structure and functioning considered more natural. Both these approaches are based on a deterministic and anthropocentric view of nature, which today is by many considered unable to capture the complexity and unpredictability of forest ecosystems in a changing world.
A truly “close to nature” management should instead consider human action as part of the system, recognizing the needs of society, but without forcing the forest in a predefined model, considered more “natural” and aimed at providing specific products or “services”. In this sense a systemic, adaptive management approach, coherent with a forest ethic, is needed.

PDF-ENG-ITA

References

  1. Allen C.D, Savage M., Falk D., Suckling K.F., Swetnam T.W., Schulke T., Stacey P.B., Morgan P., Hoffman M., Klingel J.T., 2002 - Ecological restoration of Southwestern ponderosa pine ecosystems: a broad perspective. Ecological Applications, 12: 1418-1433.
  2. Aszalós, R., Thom D., Aakala T., Angelstam P., Brūmelis G., Gálhidy L., Gratzer G., Hlásny T., Katzensteiner K., Kovács B., Knoke T., Larrieu L., Motta R., Müller J., Ódor P., Roženbergar D., Paillet Y., Pitar D., Standovár T., Svoboda M., Szwagrzyk J., Toscani P., Keeton W.S., 2022 - Natural disturbance regimes as a guide for sustainable forest management in Europe. Ecological Applications, 32, e2596.
  3. Baseler J., 1932 - Urwaldprobleme in Nordanatolien. Mitt. Inst. ausl. Forstwirtsch. Tharandt, 2; 168 p.
  4. Batavia C., Nelson M.P., 2016a - Conceptual Ambiguities and Practical Challenges of Ecological Forestry: A Critical Review. Journal of Forestry, 114: 1-10.
  5. Batavia C., Nelson M.P., 2016b - The Logical and Practical Necessity of Ethics in Ecological Forestry: A Reply to Palik and D’Amato. Journal of Forestry, 115 (1): 56-57; http://dx.doi.org/10.5849/jof.2016-078
  6. Bauhus J., Puettmann K., Messier C., 2009 - Silviculture for old-growthness. Forest Ecology and Management, vol. 258: 525-537.
  7. Bauhus J., Puettmann K.J., Kuhne C., 2013 - Close-to-nature forest management in Europe: does it support complexity and adaptability of forest ecosystems? In: Messier C., Puettmann K.J., Coates K.D. (eds.), Managing forests as complex adaptive systems: Building resilience to the challenge of global change. Routledge, New York, p. 187-213.
  8. Bechstein J.M., 1797 - Anzeige von der Herzoglich-Sächsisch-Gothaischen und Altenburgischen Societät der Forst- und Jagdkunde zu Waltershausen nebst den vorläufigen Statuten derselben. Diana, 1: 424-429.
  9. Berg F. von, 1861 - Die Wälder im Banate. Tharandt. Forstl. Jh., p. 94-165.
  10. Bormann F.H., Likens G.E, 1979 - Catastrophic disturbance and the steady state in northern hardwood forests: a new look at the role of disturbance in the development of forest ecosystems suggests important implications for land-use policies. American Scientist, 67: 660-669.
  11. Borghetti M., Ferrara A., Moretti N., Nolè A., Pierangeli D., Ripullone F., Todaro L., 2024 - Prendersi cura dei boschi di un’area interna nell’era del cambiamento climatico: il caso della Basilicata. Forest@, 21: 10-36; https://doi.org/10.3832/efor0042-021
  12. Borghi C., Francini S., McRoberts R.E., Parisi F., Lombardi F., Nocentini S., Maltoni A., Travaglini D., Chirici G., 2024 - Country-wide assessment of biodiversity, naturalness and old-growth status using national forest inventory data. Eur J Forest Res, 143: 271-303; https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-023-01620-6
  13. Bormann F.H., Likens G.E., 1979 - Catastrophic disturbance and the steady state in northern hardwood forests. Am. Sci., 67: 660-669.
  14. Botkin D.B., Sobel M.J., 1975 - Stability in time-varying ecosystems. Am. Nat., 109: 625-646.
  15. Bradshaw R.H.W., Josefsson T., Clear J.L., Peterken G.F., 2011 - The structure and reproduction of the virgin forest: A review of Eustace Jones (1945). Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, 26 (Suppl 10): 45-53.
  16. Brang P., 2005 - Virgin forests as a knowledge source for central European silviculture: reality or myth? Forest Snow and Landscape Research, 79 (1/29): 19-32.
  17. Bravo-Oviedo A., Marchi M., Travaglini D., Pelleri F., Manetti M.C., Corona P., Cruz F., Bravo F., Nocentini S., 2020 - Adoption of new silvicultural methods in Mediterranean forests: the influence of educational background and sociodemographic factors on marker decisions. Annals of Forest Science, 77 (48): 1-17; ISSN:1297-966X
  18. Brukas V., Weber N., 2009 - Forest management after the economic transition at the crossroads between German and Scandinavian traditions. For Pol Econ, 11: 586-592.
  19. Caswell H., 1978 - Predator mediated coexistence: a non-equilibrium model. Am. Nat., 112: 127-154.
  20. Cermak L., 1910 - Einiges über den Urwald von waldbaulichen Gesichtspunkten. Cent.bl. Ges. Forstwes., 36: 340-370.
  21. Chesson P.L., Case T.J., 1986 - Non-equilibrium community theories: chance, variability, history, and coexistence. In: J. Diamond and T.J. Case (eds.), Community Ecology, p. 229-239. Harper & Row, New York.
  22. Ciancio O. (a cura di), 2009 - Riserva Naturale Statale Biogenetica di Vallombrosa. Piano di Gestione e Silvomuseo 2006-2025. Corpo Forestale dello Stato, Ufficio Territoriale per la Biodiversità di Vallombrosa, Reggello (FI), 449 p.
  23. Ciancio O., 2014 - Storia del pensiero forestale. Selvicoltura filosofia etica. Rubbettino Editore, p. 79-122.
  24. Ciancio O., Iovino F., Menguzzato G., Nicolaci A., 2008 - Struttura e trattamento in alcune faggete dell’Appennino meridionale. L’Italia Forestale e Montana, 63 (6): 465-48.
  25. Ciancio O., Iovino F., Menguzzato G., Nicolaci A., Nocentini S., 2006 - Structure and growth of a small group selection forest of Calabrian pine in Southern Italy: A hypothesis for continuous cover forestry based on traditional silviculture. Forest Ecology and Management, 224: 229-234; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2005.12.057
  26. Ciancio O., Iovino F., Nocentini S., 1994 - The theory of the normal forest. La teoria del bosco normale. L’Italia forestale e montana, 49 (5): 446-462.
  27. Ciancio O., Nocentini S., 1997 - The forest and man: the evolution of forestry thought from modern humanism to the culture of complexity. Systemic silviculture and management on natural bases. In: “The forest and man”, edited by O. Ciancio, Florence, Italian Academy of Forest Sciences, p. 21-114; https://www.aisf.it/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/forest-and-man.pdf
  28. Cock A.R., 2008 - Tropical forests in the global states system. Int Aff, 84 (2): 315-333.
  29. Cooper W.S., 1913 - The climax forest of Isle Royale, Lake Superior, and its development. Botanical Gazette, 55: 1-44.
  30. Coufal J.E., 1989 - The land ethic question. Journal of Forestry, 87 (6): 23-24.
  31. Craig R.S., 1992a - Further development of a land ethic canon. Journal of Forestry, 90 (1): 30-31.
  32. Craig R.S., 1992b - Land ethic canon proposal: a report from the Task Force. Journal of Forestry, 90 (8): 40-41.
  33. DeAngelis D.L., Waterhouse J.C., 1987 - Equilibrium and non-equilibrium concepts in ecological models. Ecol. Monogr., 57: 1-21.
  34. Ducarme F., Couvet D., 2020 - What does ‘nature’ mean? Palgrave Communications, 6, art. n. 14; https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-020-0390-y
  35. Ducarme F., Flipo F., Couvet D., 2020 - How the diversity of human concepts of nature affects conservation of biodiversity. Conservation Biology, 35 (3): 1019-1028.
  36. Ehrlich P.R., Birch L.C., 1967 -The “balance of nature” and “population control”. Am. Nat., 101: 97-107.
  37. Elton C., 1930 - Animal Ecology and Evolution. Oxford University Press, New York.
  38. European Commission, Directorate-General for Environment, 2023 - Guidelines on closer-to-nature forest management, Publications Office of the European Union; https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2779/731018
  39. FAO, 2020 - Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 - Key findings. Rome; https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8753en
  40. Filotas E., Parrott L., Burton P.J., Chazdon R.L., Coates K.D., Coll L., Haeussler S., Martin K., Nocentini S., Puettmann K.J., Putz F.E., Simard S.W., Messier C., 2014 - Viewing forests through the lens of complex systems science. Ecosphere, 5 (1): 1-23; http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/ES13-00182.1
  41. Franklin, J.F., 1989a - The “new forestry”. J. Soil Water Conserv., 44 (6): 549.
  42. Franklin J.F., 1989b - Toward a new forestry. Am. For., 95 (11/12): 37-44.
  43. Franklin, J.F., Johnson K.N., 2012 - A restoration framework for federal forests in the Pacific Northwest. Journal of Forestry, 110 (8): 429-439.
  44. Franklin, J.F., Johnson K.N., 2013 - Ecologically based management: A future for federal forestry in the Pacific Northwest. Journal of Forestry, 111 (6): 429-432.
  45. Fröhlich, J., 1930 - Der südosteuropäische Urwald und seine Überführung in Wirtschaftswald. Centralblatt für das Gesamte Forstwesen, 56: 1-17, 49-65.
  46. Gayer K., 1880 - Der Waldbau. Wiegandt, Hempel, Parey Berlin, 700 p.
  47. Gayer K., 1886 - Der gemischte Wald seine Begründung und Pflege, insbesondere durch Horst- und Gruppenwirtschaft. Parey, Berlin.
  48. Harrison Pogue R., 1992 - Forests. The shadow of civilization. University of Chicago Press, 304 p.
  49. Heilbron J.L., 1990 - Introductory Essay. In: The quantifying spirit of the Eighteenth Century. Frangsmyr T., Heilbron J.L., Rider R.E. (eds.). University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, p. 1-23.
  50. Hockenjos W., 1993 - Die Wiederentdeckung des Femelwaldes. Auf forstgeschichtlicher Spuren suche im Bücherschrank eines badischen Forstamtes. Allgemeine Forst und Jagdzeitung, 164 (12): 213-218.
  51. Hockenjos W., 1995 - Forstideologisches aus Baden. Allgemeine Forst und Jagdzeitung, 166 (2/3): 34-38.
  52. Iovino F., 2011 - Classic silviculture, local knowledge and systemic silviculture. L’Italia Forestale e Montana, 66 (3): 197-202.
  53. Iovino F., 2024 - Lo studio della struttura di boschi vetusti nell’Appennino meridionale come base per la definizione di approcci selvicolturali sostenibili. L’Italia Forestale e Montana, 79 (1): 7-23; https://dx.doi.org/10.36253/ ifm-1123
  54. Iovino F., Menguzzato G., 2014 - Presupposti e contraddizioni della selvicoltura in ambiente appenninico. In: Storia del pensiero forestale. Selvicoltura Filosofia Etica, di Orazio Ciancio. Rubbettino Editore, p. 427-441.
  55. Iwaschkewitsch B.A., 1929 - Die wichtigsten Eigenarten der Struktur und der Entwicklung der Unvaldbestande. Proc. Int. Congr. For. Exp. Sta., Stockholm, p. 129-47.
  56. Johann E., 2006 - Historical development of nature-based forestry in Central Europe. In: Nature-based forestry in Central Europe. Alternatives to industrial forestry and strict preservation. Diaci, J. (ed.). Proceedings, Univ. of Ljubljana, p. 1-18.
  57. Jones E.W., 1945 - The structure and reproduction of the virgin forest of the north temperate zone. New phytologist, p. 130-148.
  58. Keren S., Diaci J., 2018 - Comparing the Quantity and Structure of Deadwood in Selection Managed and Old-Growth Forests in South-East Europe. Forests, 9 (2): 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9020076
  59. Kuuluvainen T., Aakala T., 2011 - Natural forest dynamics in boreal Fennoscandia: a review and classification. Silva Fennica, 45 (5): 823-841.
  60. Kuuluvainen T., Angelstam P., Frelich L., Jõgiste K., Koivula M., Kubota Y., Lafleur B., Macdonald E., 2021 - Natural Disturbance-Based Forest Management: Moving Beyond Retention and Continuous-Cover Forestry. Front. For. Glob. Change, 4: 629020; https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2021.629020
  61. Lang C., Pye O., 2001 - Blinded by science: The invention of scientific forestry and its influence in the Mekong Region. Watershed, 6: 25-34.
  62. Larsen J.B., Angelstam P., Bauhus J., Carvalho J.F., Diaci J., Dobrowolska D., Gazda A., Gustafsson L., Krumm F., Knoke T., Konczal A., Kuuluvainen T., Mason B., Motta R., Pötzelsberger E., Rigling A., Schuck A., 2022 - Closer-to-Nature Forest Management. From Science to Policy, 12. European Forest Institute; https://doi.org/10.36333/fs12
  63. Leopold, A., 1949 - A Sand County almanac and sketches here and there. Oxford University Press, New York, N.Y.
  64. Levin S.A., Steele J.H., Powell T.M. (eds.), 1993 - Patch Dynamics. Springer-Verlag, New York.
  65. Lie S.A.N., 2016 - Philosophy of Nature. Rethinking naturalness. Routledge, 240 p.
  66. Lindenmayer D.B., Franklin J.F., Löhmus A., Baker S.C., Bauhus J., Beese W., Brodie A. et al., 2012 - A major shift to the retention approach for forestry can help resolve some global forest issues. Conserv. Lett., 5 (6): 421-431.
  67. Lombardi F., Lasserre B., Chirici G. et al., 2012 - Deadwood occurrence and forest structure as indicators of old-growth forest conditions in Mediterranean mountainous ecosystems. Ecoscience, 19: 344-355; https://doi.org/10.2980/19-4-3506
  68. Lowood H.E., 1990 - The Calculating Forester: quantification, cameral science, and the emergence of scientific forestry management in Germany. In: The quantifying spirit of the XVIIIth century (Frangsmyr T., Heilbron J.L., Rider R.E. eds.). University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, p. 315-342.
  69. Lutz H.J., 1930 - The vegetation of Heart’s Content, a virgin forest in northwestern Pennsylvania. Ecology, 11: 1-29.
  70. Markgraf F., Dengler A., 1931 - Aus den Waldern Albaniens. Z. Forst- u. jagdztg., 63: 1-31.
  71. Mauve K., 1931 - Ueber Bestandesaufbau, Zuwachsverhältnisse und Verjüngung im galizischem Karpathen-Urväld. Mitt. Forstwirt. Forstwiss., 2: 257-311.
  72. McDowell N.G. et al., 2020 - Pervasive shifts in forest dynamics in a changing world. Science, 368, 964.
  73. Messier C., Bauhus J., Doyon F., Maure F., Sousa-Silva R., Nolet P., Mina M., Aquilué N., Fortin M.J., Puettmann K., 2019 - The functional complex network approach to foster forest resilience to global changes. Forest Ecosystems, 6 (21); https://doi.org/10.1186/s40663-019-0166-2
  74. Meyer P., Aljes M., Culmsee H. et al., 2021 - Quantifying old-growthness of lowland European beech forests by a multivariate indicator for forest structure. Ecol Indic, 125: 107575; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.107575
  75. Millar C.I., Woolfenden W.B., 1999 - The role of climate change in interpreting historical variability. Ecological Applications, 9: 1207-1216.
  76. Motta R., Alberti G., Ascoli D., Berretti R., Bilic S., Bono A., Milic C., Vojislav D., Finsinger W., Garbarino M., Govedar Z., Keren S., Meloni F., Ruffinatto F., Nola P., 2024 - Old-growth forests in the Dinaric Alps of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Montenegro: a continental hot-spot for research and biodiversity. Front. For. Glob. Change, 7: 1371144; https:// doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2024.1371144
  77. Motta R., Larsen J.B., 2022 - Un nuovo paradigma per la gestione forestale sostenibile: la selvicoltura “più” prossima alla natura. Forest@, 19: 52-62; https://doi.org/10.3832/efor4124-019
  78. Mountford, E.P., 2001 - Natural Gap Canopy Characteristics in European Beech Forests. NAT-MAN Working Report No. 2. Forest & Landscape, Denmark.
  79. Nelson M.P., Vucetich J.A., 2012 - Environmental ethics for wildlife management. In: Human dimensions of wildlife management (edited by Decker, J.D., S.J. Riley, and W.F. Siemer). Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, Baltimore, MD, p. 223-237.
  80. Nichols G.E., 1913 - The vegetation of Connecticut. II. Virgin Forests. Torreya, 13: 199-215.
  81. Nocentini S., 2009 - Structure and management of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forests in Italy. iForest, 2: 105-113. [online 2009-06-10]; URL: http://www.sisef.it/iforest/show.php?id=499; https:// doi.org/10.3832/ifor0499-002
  82. Nocentini S., 2011 - The forest as a complex biological system: theoretical and practical consequences. L’Italia Forestale e Montana, 66 (3): 191-196; https:// doi.org/10.4129/ifm.2011.3.02
  83. Nocentini S., Buttoud G., Ciancio O., Corona P., 2017 - Managing forests in a changing world: the need for a systemic approach. A review. Forest Systems, 26: 1-15.
  84. Nocentini S., Ciancio O., Portoghesi L., Corona P., 2021 - Historical roots and the evolving science of forest management under a systemic perspective. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 5: 163-171 (online November 2020).
  85. O’Neill R.V., DeAngelis D.L., Waide J.B., Allen T.F.H., 1986 - A Hierarchical Concept of Ecosystems. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
  86. Oosthoek J., 2007 - The colonial origins of scientific forestry in Britain. Working paper; https://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/items/78da3119-bff6-4a44-8e57-b1ec77b37d09
  87. Paillet Y.C., Pernot V., Boulanger N., Debaive M., Fuhr M., Gilg O., Gosselin F., 2015 - Quantifying the Recovery of Old-Growth Attributes in Forest Reserves: A First Reference for France. Forest Ecology and Management, 346: 51-64; https:// doi.org/10.1186/s40663-019-0166-2
  88. Parade A., 1883 - Cours éleméntaire de culture des bois. Sixième édition publiée par A. Lorentz et L. Tassy. Octave Doin Editeur, Paris.
  89. Patrone G., 1972 - Stravaganza prima: l’essenza dell’assestamento forestale. L’Italia Forestale e Montana, 27 (1): 1-22.
  90. Pickett S.T.A., White P.S. (eds.), 1985 - The ecology of natural disturbance and patch dynamics. Academic Press, New York.
  91. Pickett S.T.A., Parker V.T., Fiedler P.L., 1992 -The new paradigm in ecology: implications for conservation biology above the species level. In: Fiedler P.L. and Jain S.K. (eds.), Conservation Biology, p. 65-88. Chapman and Hall, New York.
  92. Plumwood V., 1993 - Feminism and the mastery of nature. Routledge, New York, 239 p.
  93. Pommerening A., Murphy S., 2004 - A review of the history, definitions and methods of continuous cover forestry with special attention to afforestation and restocking. Forestry, 77: 27-44.
  94. Puettmann K.J., Coates K.D., Messier C., 2009 - A critique of silviculture; managing for complexity. Island press, Washington DC., 190 p.
  95. Puettmann K.J., Wilson S.McG., Baker S.C., Donoso P.J., Drössler L., Amente G., Harvey B.D., Knoke T., Lu Y., Nocentini S., Putz F.E., Yoshida T., Bauhus J., 2015 - Silvicultural alternatives to conventional even-aged forest management - what limits global adoption? Forest Ecosystems, 2 (8): 1-16; https:// doi.org/10.1186/s40663-015-0031-x
  96. Rubner K., 1920 - Die waldbauliche Folgerungen des Urwaldes. Naturwiss. Z. Forst- Landwirtschaft, 18: 201-214.
  97. Schimmöller L., 2020 - Paving the Way for Rights of Nature in Germany: Lessons Learnt from Legal Reform in New Zealand and Ecuador. Transnational Environmental Law, 1-24; https://doi.org/10.1017/S2047102520000126
  98. Sears R.R., Pinedo-Vasquez M., 2011 - Forest policy reform and the organization of logging in Peruvian Amazonia. Dev Change, 42 (2): 609-631.
  99. Seidel A., 1848 - Beiträge zur Kenntnis des Urwaldes. Tharandter Forstliches Jahrbuch, 5: 158-181.
  100. Seymour R.S., Hunter M.L. Jr., 1999 - Principles of ecological forestry. In: Hunter M.L. (ed.), Maintaining biodiversity in forest ecosystems, p. 22-61. Cambridge Univ. Press, New York.
  101. Shugart H.H., 1984 - A Theory of Forest Dynamics: The Ecological Implications of Forest Succession Models. Springer-Verlag, New York.
  102. Siiskonen H., 2007 - The conflict between traditional and scientific forest management in 20th century Finland. Forest Ecology and Management, 249: 125-133; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2007.03.018
  103. Simberloff D., 2014 - The “balance of nature” - Evolution of a panchreston. PLoS Biol, 12 (10): e1001963; https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001963
  104. Smith D., 1962 - The Practice of Silviculture. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, London, Sidney, 578 p.
  105. Sommerfeld A. et al., 2018 - Patterns and drivers of recent disturbances across the temperate forest biome. Nat. Commun., 9, 4355; https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-06788-9; pmid: 30341309
  106. Stone C.D., 1972 - Should Trees Have Standing? Towards Legal Rights for Natural Objects. Southern California Law Review, 45: 450-501.
  107. Susmel L., 1955 - Conservazione e miglioramento delle abetine delle Alpi Orientali. In: Atti del Congresso Nazionale di Selvicoltura, Firenze, 1954, p. 331-372.
  108. Susmel L., 1956 - Leggi di variazione dei parametri della foresta disetanea normale. L’Italia Forestale e Montana, 11 (3): 105-116.
  109. Susmel L., 1959 - Riordinamento su basi bioecologiche delle faggete di Corleto Monforte. Pubbl. della Stazione Sperimentale di Selvicoltura, Firenze.
  110. Susmel L., 1970 - Dove va la selvicoltura? Monti e Boschi, 21 (2): 3-8.
  111. Susmel L., 1980 - Normalizzazione delle foreste alpine. Basi ecosistemiche, equilibrio, modelli colturali, produttività. Liviana Editrice, Padova, 437 p.
  112. Thünen von J.H., 1842 - Der isolierte Staat in Beziehung auf Landwirtschaft und Nationalökonomie, 2nd ed. Leopold, Rostock, Germany.
  113. Ubertini C., 2011 - Etica forestale. L’Italia forestale e Montana, 66 (1): 7-13; https://doi.org/10.4129/ifm.2011.1.01
  114. Vítková L., Bače R., Kjučukov P., Svoboda M., 2018 - Deadwood Management in Central European Forests: Key Considerations for Practical Implementation. Forest Ecology and Management, 429: 394-405.
  115. Watt A.S., 1947 - Pattern and process in plant community. J. Ecol., 35: 1-22; https://doi.org/10.2307/2256497
  116. Wessely J., 1853 - Die österreichischen Alpenldänder und ihre Forste. Wien.
  117. West D.C., Shugart, Η.H., Botkin D.B. (eds.), 1981 - Forest Succession: Concepts and Application. Springer-Verlag, Berlin and New York.
  118. White L. Jr., 1967 - The historical roots of our ecologic crisis. Science, 155 (3767): 1203-1207.
  119. Wiens J.A., Stenseth N.C., Van Horne B., Ims R.A., 1993 - Ecological mechanisms and landscape ecology. Oikos, 66: 369-380.
  120. Williams R., 1976 - Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society, Oxford University Press.
  121. Wirth C., Messier C., Bergeron Y., Frank D., Fankhänel A., 2009 - Old-growth forest definitions: a pragmatic view. In: Wirth C., Heimann M., Gleixner G. (eds.), Old-growth forests: function, fate and values. Ecological studies. Springer, New York.
  122. Wu J., 1992 - Balance of nature and environmental protection: a paradigm shift. In Proc. 4th Intern. Conf Asia Experts, Portland State University, Portland, 22 p.
  123. Wu J., 1994 - Modeling dynamics of patchy landscapes: linking metapopulation theory, land- scape ecology and conservation biology. In: Year- book of Systems Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing.
  124. Wu J., Levin S.A., 1994 - A spatial patch dynamic modeling approach to pattern and process in an annual grassland. Ecol. Monogr., 64: 447-464.
  125. Wu J., Loucks O., 1995 - From Balance of Nature to Hierarchical Patch Dynamics: A Paradigm Shift in Ecology. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 70 (4): 439-466.
  126. Zednik F., 1938-39 - Ueber den Aufbau des Urwaldes der Gemäßigten Zone. Z. Weltforstw., 6: 215-29.

Most read articles by the same author(s)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 > >>